Title (deu)
Chinesisches Blauweiß-Exportporzellan
die portugiesischen Bestellungen vom Anfang des 16. Jahrhunderts bis 1722; eine neue Chronologie mit Beiträgen zu Form und Dekor
Parallel title (eng)
Chinese Blue–and–White Export Porcelain Portuguese Orders from the Beginning of the 16th Century to 1722
Author
Maria Fernanda Lochschmidt
Advisor
Jorinde Ebert
Assessor
Jorinde Ebert
Abstract (deu)
1Die fünf Perioden portugiesischer Bestellungen
Nach dieser Studie möchte ich die portugiesischen Bestellungen chinesischen Blauweiß-Exportporzellans vom ihrem Anfang bis zu Kangxi 康熙 in fünf Perioden einteilen, die durch den historischen Hintergrund vor allem aus portugiesischer Sicht, durch die Auftraggeber und die Art der Exportware bestimmt werden.
Erste Periode
Die erste Periode reicht von der Zeit der Ankunft der Portugiesen in Asien 1498 bis zum Beginn des verschärften Handelsverbotes Chinas mit Portugal (1522). Objekte Abb. 01 bis 19 stammen aus dieser Epoche, der Herrschaftszeit Hongzhis 弘治 oder Zhengdes 正德 und vom Beginn der Jiajing 嘉靖-Periode.
Meiner Meinung nach wurden in dieser ersten Periode die Aufträge durch private Händler an Handelsplätzen der Portugiesen wie in Malakka, auf den Gewürzinseln oder in Goa entgegengenommen und nach China und Jingdezhen weitergeleitet. Diese erste Periode spiegelt die starke Zentralmacht Manuels I und der Kirche wider.
In diesem ersten Jahrzehnt waren die einzigen Auftraggeber der portugiesische Hof Manuels I zusammen mit der ihm stark verbundenen Kirche. Zu dieser Zeit – und in der zweiten, folgenden Periode – gleichen die nach Portugal exportierten Stücke noch stark der allgemeinen Exportware, die auch nach Nahost und Südostasien verschifft wurde. Sie sind in Form und Dekor chinesisch mit Ausnahme der Wappen der portugiesischen Krone, des Himmelglobus, des IHS-Monogramms und wahrscheinlich auch der bisher nicht gedeuteten Landschaftsdarstellung. Die Qualität ist zu dieser Zeit allgemein niedrig.
Zweite Periode
Die zweite Periode reicht vom Handelsverbot mit den Portugiesen (1522) bis zur Inbesitznahme Macaus durch die Portugiesen (1557). 1542 oder 1543 erreichen die Portugiesen Japan und werden von der Dreiecks-Handelsroute Malakka – China – Japan profitieren. Zu dieser Zeit war nicht mehr nur der Hof unter João III Auftraggeber für Exportware, sondern auch die Kirche (vor allem der Jesuitenorden, der sich in Goa und Malakka niedergelassen hatte) sowie erste Privatpersonen – die Seefahrer, die nach Goa und Malakka gekommen waren und in Portugal mit Adelstiteln bedacht wurden. Zu dieser Zeit können wir die ersten personalisierten Objekte feststellen, vor allem Inschriften, die auf den Auftraggeber Bezug nehmen, häufen sich. Die Qualität ist besser. Die Form und das Grundmuster waren auch zu dieser Zeit noch für den Großteil der Exportware nach Nahost und Portugal ziemlich ähnlich. Form und Dekor bleiben chinesisch mit Ausnahme der eingefügten Wappen und Inschriften und des einzigartigen Falles des Reiterdekors auf der Ohrenschale, einer europäischen Form, die wohl von einem Zinngefäß kopiert wurde. Eine weitere europäische Form wird eingeführt, der tiefe Teller mit breitem, flachem Rand, der sogar in das Produktionsprogramm für den Heimmarkt aufgenommen wird. Sowohl Ohrenschale als auch breitrandiger Teller stehen auf Schiffen in Verwendung. In diese Periode fallen Objekte 20 bis 36.
Dritte Periode
Die dritte Periode des offiziell erlaubten Handels reicht von 1557 bis ca. 1610, dem Jahr, ab dem Portugal graduell die Posten auf dem Seeweg nach China an die Holländer verliert. Macau wird das Zentrum der portugiesischen Handelsrouten.
Zu dieser Zeit waren die Auftraggeber vor allem die in Macau etablierten Orden (Jesuiten, Augustiner, Dominikaner, Franziskaner) sowie wiederum adelige portugiesische Seefahrer. Erstmals werden von einzelnen privaten und kirchlichen Auftraggebern zahlreiche verschiedene Typen von Gefäßen geordert. Eine weiteres Gebrauchsobjekt der Seefahrer dient als Prototyp für ein neues Porzellanprodukt, die vierkantige Flasche im „Carracas“-Stil, die nicht exklusiv in den portugiesischen Bestellungen erscheint, sondern in vielen internationalen Sammlungen zu finden ist. Parallel finden wir auch ausländische Motive, ebenfalls nicht exklusiv für die portugiesischen Order. Beispiele dafür sind die Blumenarabesken wie im Medici-Porzellan und in der italienischen Majolica-Ware. Sonst bleiben Form und Dekor hauptsächlich chinesisch.
In dieser dritten Periode – Objekte Abb. 37 bis 50 und 56 bis 62 – sind die portugiesische Bestellungen im Kraak-Stil inkludiert.
Vierte Periode
Die vierte Periode von 1610 bis 1683 (oder vielmehr 1657 – letzteres Datum ist das letzte Jahr in dem Porzellane nach Europa exportiert wurden) ist die Zeit des Untergangs der portugiesischen Dominanz in Ostasien und ihrer Ablösung durch die Holländer. Der einzige nennenswerte Handelsstützpunkt, der den Portugiesen in Fernost verbleibt, ist Macau. In China kann sich mit dem Ende der Ming-Dynastie 明朝Jingdezhen vom höfischen Einfluß weitgehend befreien.
Obwohl die Übergangsperiode erst nach dem Tod Kaiser Wanlis 1620 beginnt, scheint es, daß die Öfen von Jingdezhen schon ab ca. 1610 Kapazitäten frei hatten und so zu echten Auftragsproduzenten wurden, bei denen der Kunde Form und Dekor weitgehend vorgibt. Ab diesem Zeitpunkt finden wir komplexere Formen und Ikonographien auf dem Exportporzellan. Manche der von der Portugiesen ab 1610 bestellten Stücke tragen plastische Tonapplikationen, die der Ware ein skulpturales Aussehen verleihen. Das ist eine Ankündigung der kommenden Vorliebe für sehr plastisch gearbeitetes, ornamentales Gebrauchsporzellan in der Qing-Zeit.
Die Qualität hat zu dieser Zeit allerdings noch nicht die Exzellenz erreicht, welche die Holländer, die ab den frühen dreißiger Jahren des 17. Jahrhunderts ein Handelsmonopol in der Region ausüben werden, vorfinden. Portugal bereitet somit den Weg für Holland auf.
In dieser vierten Periode werden europäische Formen und Dekors mit chinesischen kombiniert. Objekte 51 bis 55 und 63 bis 82 gehören zu dieser Periode.
Fünfte Periode
In der fünften Periode von 1683 bis zum Ende der Regierungsperiode Kangxi 康熙 1722 – aus dieser Zeit stammen die Objekte Abb. 83 bis 95 – kommt es zu einem starken Anstieg der Exportaufträge nach Europa, der vor allem von der Reorganisation Jingdezhens mit mehr wirtschaftlicher Autonomie der Exportbetriebe unter den Manchus getragen wird. Auch Portugal erlebt mit der Ausbeutung des Goldes aus Brasilien ab 1699 eine neue Ära der Prosperität und wird wiederum zu einem wichtigen Kunden der Öfen von Jingdezhen.
Zur Zeit Kaiser Kangxis 康熙 kann man deutlich zwei Richtungen unterscheiden: ein Teil des Exportporzellans bleibt im Aussehen chinesisch, der andere wird rein europäisch. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden beide Hauptrichtungen behandelt.
Dies ist somit eine Periode des Übergangs zu einer Europäisierung des Exportporzellans. In der Zeit nach Kangxi 康熙 – ab 1711 wird in Meißen Porzellan hergestellt, Jingdezhen hat damit einen großen Konkurrenten auf dem europäischen Markt – werden in China fast ausschließlich europäische Formen und Dekors hergestellt.
Erstmals erscheinen wirklich große Speiseservice in den Aufträgen. Echte portugiesische Prototypen , auch Muster, die exklusiv für Portugal und Brasilien hergestellt werden, tauchen auf. Bei vielen Stücken sind weder im Muster noch in der Form chinesische Spuren mehr sichtbar.
Mit der langen Tradition auf dem Keramiksektor, der Pionierrolle als Porzellanauftraggeber und dem ausgedehnten Zeitraum, während dessen Bestellungen durchgeführt und abgewickelt wurden, steht Portugal einzigartig als Ausgangs- wie Zielpunkt für das Studium chinesischen Exportporzellans da.
Abstract (eng)
Chinese Blue–and–White Export Porcelain
Portuguese Orders
from the Beginning of the 16th Century to 1722
A New Chronology with
Contributions on Form and Decoration
The Portugese were the first Europeans to order porcelain from China.
Under the strong centralist government of King Manuel I (1495–1521), Portugal began to conquer the sea-routes which would take them to the „Índias“ – the name given to all overseas possessions from Africa to Japan – probably in search of a maritime trade route which could substitute the Silk Road.
An important ally for this costly enterprise was the Roman Catholic church which aimed to christianize the conquered lands.
Already Vasco da Gama, returning from his voyage to India in 1498, had brought back to the King porcelains from Calcutta.
Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca in 1511, and the first naos (ships) departed from that peninsula to China.
In 1517 the Portuguese king Manuel I appointed Tomé Pires, his herbalist and author of „Suma Oriental“ (1512) as ambassador to the Chinese emperor Zhengde (1506–1521). Tomé Pires departed from Malacca, carrying with him a letter to the Chinese emperor.
As a consequence of a series of misunderstandings the embassy failed, and China prohibited to deal with the Portuguese commercially, forbidding even the entry of Portuguese subjects on its territory from 1522 to 1552.
Under such unfavorable conditions imposed by the Ming court – which from the very beginning of the dynasty followed a xenophobic policy – the Portuguese commissioned the first Chinese porcelains.
In my work I aim to present an overview of the blue and white porcelains that were sent to Lisbon during the roughly two centuries in question, that is from the first orders up to the end of emperor Kangxi's reign (1722)1. I decided to list the orders chronologically in groups of related wares and established periods.
In order to determine each of these periods, I had to take into account a series of factors:
Historic background of the Portuguese presence in Asia.
The progresses made in Jingdezhen, the town that had monopolized the production of porcelains since the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368)
The general characteristics of porcelains during each Chinese emperor's reign.
The characteristics of the individual pieces exported to Portugal.
The first period covers the years between the first orders at the beginning of the 16th century up to 1522, the year the Portuguese were forbidden to trade with China.
The porcelains of this early period feature basically the emblems of the state and church only, thus clearly bearing witness to the strong centralized government of Manuel I. The only Portuguese decorations to be found are the Manueline armillary sphere and his coats-of-arms, as well as a Catholic symbol, the IHS monogram. Another motive, in my opinion of Portuguese origin, however, is found only together with the preceding ones.
These first orders have strong similarities in shape and decoration with the wares exported to the Middle East and, in the case of dishes, also to South-East Asia.
In my opinion this group of the very first orders was commissioned by Portuguese not in China itself, but probably in Malakka, the Spice Islands and other trading posts where private Chinese merchants sold the first pieces of porcelain to them and then took orders of their Portuguese customers back to Jingdezhen.
Of all objects known today, the probably first orders were a group of dishes related by similar decoration and shape, which bear the armillary sphere and the coats-of-arms of King Manuel I together with the IHS monogramm. The first types measure about 51 cm in diameter – objects 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 – the second types measure 31 cm – objects 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 .
These dishes have hitherto mostly been dated Jiajing (1522–1566). But their thick shard, milky glaze, „spiky scrolls“, grayish cobalt blue and the peonies which decorate the back of the larger pieces (and the front of the piece in the British Museum) identify them as Hongzhi (1488–1505) or Zhengde (1506–1521) porcelains, since they belong to the same series of dishes that were exported around 1500 to the Middle East and South-East Asia.
The next objects are two ewers – objects 15 and 16 – with very simplified decoration. They bear the Xuande (1426–1435) mark on the basis and the armillary sphere of Manuel I (1495–1521) on their bodies. The poor quality of these ewers have lead some experts to believe that they were made in a provincial oven in Fujian.
Zhengde period porcelain is known for not being of best quality. Furthermore, during this time China started to export large quantities of porcelain.
The following pieces – objects 17 and 18 – are an ewer and a bottle. The ewer bears the armillary sphere of Manuel I on both sides and the Zhengde mark on its base. The piece has been executed in two parts, carefully decorated in bright cobalt, and the shard is white. These characterists lead one to believe it could be a Jiajing ware. The bottle was found on the Molucca Islands, also called Spice Islands, part of today's Indonesia. It bears no reign mark, has a bulbous mouth and was decorated on the neck with spiralling prunus in a grayish cobalt tone, which makes it datable from late Zhengde to early or middle Jiajing.
The third object in this group of porcelaines is a jug in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York – object 19 – which has the coats-of-arms of Manuel I painted upside-down in a bright blue cobalt, bearing the Xuande mark on the basis. This piece has been dated Zhengde (1506–1521) for long, despite of John Pope's observations of its hexagonal mouth which is a sure indication of a later period. The actual dating by the Metropolitan Museum of Art is 1540–1545.
The second period covers the time when the Portuguese were officially prohibited to trade with the Chinese, from 1522 to 1557, the latter year being the date the situation was finally regularized and Macau was given to the Portuguese.
King João III (1522–1557) followed a more pragmatic policy than Manuel I, being more interested in establishing trade relations with foreign countries than conquering them.
Most of the pieces during his reign bear testimony to an active illegal trade.
During this period, which corresponds to the reign of emperor Jiajing in China, there is a general improvement in the potting and decoration of the ordered wares. This period is also characterized by the appearance of inscriptions on porcelains, which render them more individual.
Around the middle of the 16th century at least two forms were introduced by the Portuguese: a bowl with small handles, copied from a porridger, of which only two pieces are extant. For this reason these two bowls should be considered as individual cases. The second form was a deep dish with flat rim, which was widely produced in Jingdezhen and is present in various collections.
Decoration basically stays Chinese with the exception of the various coats-of-arms and, in one of the bowls with small handles, a scene with Europeans on horse back.
During this period there are still great similiarities between exported wares to the Middle East and Portugal.
I first analyze three ewers displaying the IHS monogram with a latin cross over the „H“ –objects 20, 21 and 22 – which relates them to the Jesuits. The quality of these wares and their decoration are characteristic of the Jiajing (1522–1566) period.
Next are five bowls with the inscriptions „AVE MARIA GRACIA PLENA“ – objects 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27. The first two have straight rims and bear the armillary sphere and coats-of-arms of Manuel I upside-down on the outer walls. In the centre appears a taoist religious figure. The third and fourth have flared rims, buddhist lions playing with a brocade ball in the centre, and also bear the „IHS“ monogram on the outside walls, which here appears with a cross over the „H“, relating them to the Jesuits. The fifth bowl also has a flared rim and has been carefully decorated with a frieze of lotus panels and peonies' scrolls.
The five „Ave Maria Gracia Plena“ bowls have been dated 1540–1550 due to strong similarities of bowls 25 and 26 with one in the Topkapi Saray Museum of Istanbul, which has an inscription and date „EM TEMPO DE PEDRO DE FARIA 1541“ object 28.
Two more bowls in a form derived most probably from a pewter bowl – objects 29 and 30 – bear the same inscription. One of them shows on it's outside wall children at play, a characteristic motif of the Jiajing period, and the coats-of-arms of the Abreu family in the center. The other shows Europeans on horse back in the centre as well as a figure meditating, also evoking the emperor's religion .
The so-called „Jorge Álvarez bottles“ represent an important historic testimony of the first encounters between two civilizations. Capitão Jorge Álvarez was a friend of Francisco Xavier, who died in Álvarez' tent, during his attempt to christianize China. The bottles were ordered in the year of his death 1522. There are six extant bottles around the world, four of which are shown as objects 31, 32, 33 and 34, all bearing the inscriptions and date „ISTO MANDOU FAZER JORGE ALVAREZ 1522 REYNA“. Two of them bear a good wishes mark. On their neck they feature the jewel-and-bead motive, and on the body either the buddhist motive of lions playing with brocade balls and the sea and nature elements like ducks, fishes, sea-stars, water plants and flowers respectively. The motives are presented in registers. The construction of their neck is similar to the bottles found on the naos „San Diego“ and „Nossa Senhora dos Mártires“, shipwrecked in 1600 and 1606 respectively.
The third period covers the time from the establishment of the Portuguese in Macau in 1557 and the normalization of the commercial relations with China, up to 1610, when the Portuguese start loosing control of the sea-routes to the Dutch.
During this third period orders were made in greater scale than before, often in different shapes and, thanks to a well organized trade network, were distributed to distant parts of the globe.
This period includes the Portuguese orders in Kraak style.
The forms of the ordered wares remain mostly Chinese. Nevertheless some non–Chinese shapes have been introduced, again from utensils taken on ships, as is the case of the „carracas“ style bottle.
Concerning decoration, apart from coats-of-arms, it remains mostly Chinese.
The two ewers with the coats-of-arms attributed to the Peixoto family – objects 35 and 36 – bear the Jiajing marks. It has a bulbous mouth with a decoration mostly seen on wares for the local Chinese market. It has been dated to the second half of the Jiajing reign.
On the Matias de Albuquerque dish – object 37 – there was no space left for further decoration than the coats-of-arms. It bears the „fu“ (fortune) mark on the back. Fragments of a similar dish have been found in Ormuz. It has been dated 1575–1600, as Albuquerque served as Vice-King of India from 1591 to 1597.
Next is a group of jars with the coats-of-arms of the Augustinians – objects 38, 39, 40, 41 and 42 – with either a round or hexagonal mouth, made in two known sizes. The Augustinians settle in Macau 1589. Their decoration combines naturalistic flowers, plants and animals with Christian motives, divided into panels, a common feature during the Wanli period (1573–1619). Related to them are three dishes of two different sizes – objects 43, 44 and 45 – decorated with lions, butterflies, peaches and peonies. The latter and larger dish has a white hare on the rim. The hare appears frequently from the early 16th to the early 17th century. All pieces have been dated 1590.
The square bottles decorated with the coats-of-arms of the Vilas Boas or Vaz families – objects 46, 47, 48, 49 and 50 – were apparently produced in two different sizes and their prototype was most probably a European glass bottle, the kind which served for transport of alcoholic beverages on ships. Some authors believe the model was copied from a sake bottle. Their decoration combines naturalistic motives characteristic of the Wanli period (1573–1619) with patterns inspired by textile motives, which also make their debut during his reign. The bottles are dated 1590–1610.
From the few known Kraak wares with coats-of-arms, some were commissioned by the Portuguese.
Dom João de Almeida, or possibly the Mello or Palla families, ordered the three dishes and one kendi – objects 56, 57, 58 and 59. They have been dated between 1575 and 1605 after historical records displaying the decoration of their panels. The well-drawn beaded pendants on the kendi points to an early type.
The next two pieces, a dish and a bowl – objects 60 and 61 – with the inscription „SAPIENTI NIHIL NOVUM“ are believed to be a Portuguese order because the dish was part of the porcelain ceiling at the Santos Palace in Lisbon. The motive of the seven-headed Hydra reminds of scenes depicted on the Angers tapisserie dated end of the 14th century and the fact that a similar bowl appears on a still-life Dutch painting of W. C. Heda dated 1638, makes it possible that they were commissioned by the Dutch. The dish has been dated 1575–1605 and the bowl 1600–1620.
The dish with the coats-of-arms of the Galego family – object 62 – has Wanli -style flower decoration on the panels distributed in a manner typical for the period between 1575 and 1615, but combined on four divided areas with different diaper patterns, which points to a later period. It could, therefore, be dated between 1595–1635.
The fourth period starts around 1610 and covers the years up to 1657, when Jingdezhen ceases to export to Europe.
During this period the Portuguese start losing control of the maritime trade to the Dutch.
The Ming dynasty approaches its end and the potters of Jingdezhen have to look for new customers.
The Portuguese seem to profit from this situation mostly during the early Transitional period, that is, from 1620 up to around 1633, when the quality of the exported porcelain did not yet attain the level of perfection seen when Jingdezhen was reorganized under private hands. During this time trade was monopolized by the Dutch.
During this fourth period more sophisticated forms than in the previous periods were introduced by the Portuguese,
In the domain of decoration, foreign patterns – though not Portuguese – were added to the Chinese repertoire: one of them shows similarities with the Medici porcelains and Italian majolicas decorations, which were inspired by Turkish Iznik wares. Other are stylised flowers, also known as „European flowers“, which include the tulip.
Tulips appear in two groups of wares described as follows: the bottles of Philip II and the square bottles related to the Dominicans. Both groups have not yet been described as Portuguese orders, since they could also have been commissioned by the Spaniards or Dutch.
The three following jars – objects 51, 52 and 53 – probably made for the Portuguese Jesuits, may have been copied after metal prototypes. Their decoration combines Wanlityle flowers with Christian motives. The glaze has fritted away along the edges. Applied angel faces of clay convey a sculptural tone to this group, a characteristic which is also found in the next two ewers. They are dated 1610–1630.
The twin ewers of unusual shape – objects 54 – 55 – could have been inspired by a Portuguese faience prototype. Their handle is in the form of a rudimentary prominent figure, which reminds one of the common contemporary ivory figures of crucified Christ made in Goa. The source of inspiration for the rosettes is unknown. They belong to the same period as that of the preceding jars.
The inclusion of molded parts in the decoration of the five last described pieces announces the predilection for highly modelled and decorative pieces ordered by the Portuguese during the Qing Dynasty.
It is not yet clear who ordered the flasks with the coats-of-arms of Felipe II, King of Spain (1556–1598) and King of Portugal (1580–1598) – objects 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73 and 74 – and when. Their forms derive from a European pilgrims' flask. There is a consensus among authors, however, that the coats-of-arms were copied from a coin. There are three types of flasks, all with the same shape, but different decoration. The first type has motives typical of the Wanli (1573–1619) period: naturalistic flowers, insects and rocks drawn on the opposite side of the coats-of-arms. The second group has a landscape painting composed by diagonal rocky cliffs, with strong tonal contrasts and much space left in between, with a scholar and his attendant in a narrative style which is characteristic of the Transitional period. The third flask has sketchily drawn flowers joined by leafy scrolls, with short secondary and tertiary scrolls branching off the main stem, on both sides, without coats-of-arms. All the pieces show signs of a chipping glaze. All together these features are typical of the Tianqi (1621–1627) and early Chongzhen (1628–1644) periods, also known as early Transitional period.
The next pieces are the square bottles with a complexe Christian iconography – objects 75, 76, 77 and 78 – whose commissioners could have been the Dominicans, as a dog with a lit torch in his mouth, symbol of Saint Dominic, is depicted in the lower left on two of its sides. These pieces, which were most probably produced after a European prototype, have their decoration framed by stylised flowers and tulips on the neck, motives widely used during the Transitional Period. Some scholars believe they could have been commissioned by the Dutch. The bottles have been dated between 1620–1644.
The following jars bear the heraldic insignia of the Jesuits – objects 79 and 80 – drawn in cartouches on the main register, over a flower pattern that reminds of the flower arabesques found on Medici porcelains and Italian majolica. On the upper register, smaller cartouches containing a hare were painted with a background of patterns with svastikas and diapers. They are dated between 1620 and 1644.
The two pots – objects 81 and 82 – are of identical shape but different size and bear no other decoration than the coats-of-arms of the Pinto, Pereira, Guedes and Pimentel families. The form, most probably derived from a Portuguese faience prototype, shows traces of the potter's wheel. It has been dated Chongzhen (1628–1644).
The fifth period covers the time from when Jingdezhen was reorganized under Zang Yingxuan 1683 up to the end of the Kangxi period, 1722. During this period, the friendly trade policies of the Manchus and the gold discovered in Brazil (1699 first shipping) boosted the Portuguese orders of porcelain, both royal, clerical or private. The Kangxi reign porcelain was prolific in quantity and quality. This is a time of transition to purely European looking export porcelain – Meissen produced porcelain from 1711 onwards and thus became an important competitor with Jingdezhen. I have chosen only two groups of porcelains, which I believe represent the main trends of the 18th century:
The first group comprises identical plates ordered by the Pinto family – objects 83, 84, 85, 86, 87 and 88. They feature foliated rims and conserve Chinese forms and decorations and are dated between 1690 and 1700.
The decoration of the second group is a pattern of flowers, fruits and leaves that only appear on these blue and white wares commissioned by various families from Portugal and its colony Brazil during the period of 1690 to 1720 – objects 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 and 95. Pieces with this decoration include a variety of different shapes such as dishes, a kraak style plate, vases, and a wash basin made after a Portuguese metal prototypes. The plant depicted in this groups, shown both as buds as well as blooming flowers, and exclusive to these orders of Portugal, could not be identified by botanic specialists. Buds, flowers and leaves do not seem to correspond to one single species.
These two groups therefore differ both in form and decoration, the first being almost exclusively Chinese, the latter Portuguese.
Keywords (eng)
blue-and-whiteblau-whiteporcelainChinaPortugalJingdezhenGuanyaoMinyaoWanliHongzhiZhengdeJiajingLongqingKraakTianqiChongzhenShunzhiKangxiMingQingAsia2008
Keywords (deu)
Blauweißblau-weißPorzellanChinaPortugalJingdezhenGuanyaoMinyaoWanliHongzhiZhengdeJiajingLongqingKraakTianqiChongzhenShunzhiKangxiMingQingAsien
Subject (deu)
Subject (deu)
Subject (deu)
Subject (deu)
Subject (deu)
Type (deu)
Persistent identifier
https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:1249345
rdau:P60550 (deu)
283 S.
Number of pages
123
Association (deu)
Title (deu)
Chinesisches Blauweiß-Exportporzellan
die portugiesischen Bestellungen vom Anfang des 16. Jahrhunderts bis 1722; eine neue Chronologie mit Beiträgen zu Form und Dekor
Parallel title (eng)
Chinese Blue–and–White Export Porcelain Portuguese Orders from the Beginning of the 16th Century to 1722
Author
Maria Fernanda Lochschmidt
Abstract (deu)
1Die fünf Perioden portugiesischer Bestellungen
Nach dieser Studie möchte ich die portugiesischen Bestellungen chinesischen Blauweiß-Exportporzellans vom ihrem Anfang bis zu Kangxi 康熙 in fünf Perioden einteilen, die durch den historischen Hintergrund vor allem aus portugiesischer Sicht, durch die Auftraggeber und die Art der Exportware bestimmt werden.
Erste Periode
Die erste Periode reicht von der Zeit der Ankunft der Portugiesen in Asien 1498 bis zum Beginn des verschärften Handelsverbotes Chinas mit Portugal (1522). Objekte Abb. 01 bis 19 stammen aus dieser Epoche, der Herrschaftszeit Hongzhis 弘治 oder Zhengdes 正德 und vom Beginn der Jiajing 嘉靖-Periode.
Meiner Meinung nach wurden in dieser ersten Periode die Aufträge durch private Händler an Handelsplätzen der Portugiesen wie in Malakka, auf den Gewürzinseln oder in Goa entgegengenommen und nach China und Jingdezhen weitergeleitet. Diese erste Periode spiegelt die starke Zentralmacht Manuels I und der Kirche wider.
In diesem ersten Jahrzehnt waren die einzigen Auftraggeber der portugiesische Hof Manuels I zusammen mit der ihm stark verbundenen Kirche. Zu dieser Zeit – und in der zweiten, folgenden Periode – gleichen die nach Portugal exportierten Stücke noch stark der allgemeinen Exportware, die auch nach Nahost und Südostasien verschifft wurde. Sie sind in Form und Dekor chinesisch mit Ausnahme der Wappen der portugiesischen Krone, des Himmelglobus, des IHS-Monogramms und wahrscheinlich auch der bisher nicht gedeuteten Landschaftsdarstellung. Die Qualität ist zu dieser Zeit allgemein niedrig.
Zweite Periode
Die zweite Periode reicht vom Handelsverbot mit den Portugiesen (1522) bis zur Inbesitznahme Macaus durch die Portugiesen (1557). 1542 oder 1543 erreichen die Portugiesen Japan und werden von der Dreiecks-Handelsroute Malakka – China – Japan profitieren. Zu dieser Zeit war nicht mehr nur der Hof unter João III Auftraggeber für Exportware, sondern auch die Kirche (vor allem der Jesuitenorden, der sich in Goa und Malakka niedergelassen hatte) sowie erste Privatpersonen – die Seefahrer, die nach Goa und Malakka gekommen waren und in Portugal mit Adelstiteln bedacht wurden. Zu dieser Zeit können wir die ersten personalisierten Objekte feststellen, vor allem Inschriften, die auf den Auftraggeber Bezug nehmen, häufen sich. Die Qualität ist besser. Die Form und das Grundmuster waren auch zu dieser Zeit noch für den Großteil der Exportware nach Nahost und Portugal ziemlich ähnlich. Form und Dekor bleiben chinesisch mit Ausnahme der eingefügten Wappen und Inschriften und des einzigartigen Falles des Reiterdekors auf der Ohrenschale, einer europäischen Form, die wohl von einem Zinngefäß kopiert wurde. Eine weitere europäische Form wird eingeführt, der tiefe Teller mit breitem, flachem Rand, der sogar in das Produktionsprogramm für den Heimmarkt aufgenommen wird. Sowohl Ohrenschale als auch breitrandiger Teller stehen auf Schiffen in Verwendung. In diese Periode fallen Objekte 20 bis 36.
Dritte Periode
Die dritte Periode des offiziell erlaubten Handels reicht von 1557 bis ca. 1610, dem Jahr, ab dem Portugal graduell die Posten auf dem Seeweg nach China an die Holländer verliert. Macau wird das Zentrum der portugiesischen Handelsrouten.
Zu dieser Zeit waren die Auftraggeber vor allem die in Macau etablierten Orden (Jesuiten, Augustiner, Dominikaner, Franziskaner) sowie wiederum adelige portugiesische Seefahrer. Erstmals werden von einzelnen privaten und kirchlichen Auftraggebern zahlreiche verschiedene Typen von Gefäßen geordert. Eine weiteres Gebrauchsobjekt der Seefahrer dient als Prototyp für ein neues Porzellanprodukt, die vierkantige Flasche im „Carracas“-Stil, die nicht exklusiv in den portugiesischen Bestellungen erscheint, sondern in vielen internationalen Sammlungen zu finden ist. Parallel finden wir auch ausländische Motive, ebenfalls nicht exklusiv für die portugiesischen Order. Beispiele dafür sind die Blumenarabesken wie im Medici-Porzellan und in der italienischen Majolica-Ware. Sonst bleiben Form und Dekor hauptsächlich chinesisch.
In dieser dritten Periode – Objekte Abb. 37 bis 50 und 56 bis 62 – sind die portugiesische Bestellungen im Kraak-Stil inkludiert.
Vierte Periode
Die vierte Periode von 1610 bis 1683 (oder vielmehr 1657 – letzteres Datum ist das letzte Jahr in dem Porzellane nach Europa exportiert wurden) ist die Zeit des Untergangs der portugiesischen Dominanz in Ostasien und ihrer Ablösung durch die Holländer. Der einzige nennenswerte Handelsstützpunkt, der den Portugiesen in Fernost verbleibt, ist Macau. In China kann sich mit dem Ende der Ming-Dynastie 明朝Jingdezhen vom höfischen Einfluß weitgehend befreien.
Obwohl die Übergangsperiode erst nach dem Tod Kaiser Wanlis 1620 beginnt, scheint es, daß die Öfen von Jingdezhen schon ab ca. 1610 Kapazitäten frei hatten und so zu echten Auftragsproduzenten wurden, bei denen der Kunde Form und Dekor weitgehend vorgibt. Ab diesem Zeitpunkt finden wir komplexere Formen und Ikonographien auf dem Exportporzellan. Manche der von der Portugiesen ab 1610 bestellten Stücke tragen plastische Tonapplikationen, die der Ware ein skulpturales Aussehen verleihen. Das ist eine Ankündigung der kommenden Vorliebe für sehr plastisch gearbeitetes, ornamentales Gebrauchsporzellan in der Qing-Zeit.
Die Qualität hat zu dieser Zeit allerdings noch nicht die Exzellenz erreicht, welche die Holländer, die ab den frühen dreißiger Jahren des 17. Jahrhunderts ein Handelsmonopol in der Region ausüben werden, vorfinden. Portugal bereitet somit den Weg für Holland auf.
In dieser vierten Periode werden europäische Formen und Dekors mit chinesischen kombiniert. Objekte 51 bis 55 und 63 bis 82 gehören zu dieser Periode.
Fünfte Periode
In der fünften Periode von 1683 bis zum Ende der Regierungsperiode Kangxi 康熙 1722 – aus dieser Zeit stammen die Objekte Abb. 83 bis 95 – kommt es zu einem starken Anstieg der Exportaufträge nach Europa, der vor allem von der Reorganisation Jingdezhens mit mehr wirtschaftlicher Autonomie der Exportbetriebe unter den Manchus getragen wird. Auch Portugal erlebt mit der Ausbeutung des Goldes aus Brasilien ab 1699 eine neue Ära der Prosperität und wird wiederum zu einem wichtigen Kunden der Öfen von Jingdezhen.
Zur Zeit Kaiser Kangxis 康熙 kann man deutlich zwei Richtungen unterscheiden: ein Teil des Exportporzellans bleibt im Aussehen chinesisch, der andere wird rein europäisch. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden beide Hauptrichtungen behandelt.
Dies ist somit eine Periode des Übergangs zu einer Europäisierung des Exportporzellans. In der Zeit nach Kangxi 康熙 – ab 1711 wird in Meißen Porzellan hergestellt, Jingdezhen hat damit einen großen Konkurrenten auf dem europäischen Markt – werden in China fast ausschließlich europäische Formen und Dekors hergestellt.
Erstmals erscheinen wirklich große Speiseservice in den Aufträgen. Echte portugiesische Prototypen , auch Muster, die exklusiv für Portugal und Brasilien hergestellt werden, tauchen auf. Bei vielen Stücken sind weder im Muster noch in der Form chinesische Spuren mehr sichtbar.
Mit der langen Tradition auf dem Keramiksektor, der Pionierrolle als Porzellanauftraggeber und dem ausgedehnten Zeitraum, während dessen Bestellungen durchgeführt und abgewickelt wurden, steht Portugal einzigartig als Ausgangs- wie Zielpunkt für das Studium chinesischen Exportporzellans da.
Abstract (eng)
Chinese Blue–and–White Export Porcelain
Portuguese Orders
from the Beginning of the 16th Century to 1722
A New Chronology with
Contributions on Form and Decoration
The Portugese were the first Europeans to order porcelain from China.
Under the strong centralist government of King Manuel I (1495–1521), Portugal began to conquer the sea-routes which would take them to the „Índias“ – the name given to all overseas possessions from Africa to Japan – probably in search of a maritime trade route which could substitute the Silk Road.
An important ally for this costly enterprise was the Roman Catholic church which aimed to christianize the conquered lands.
Already Vasco da Gama, returning from his voyage to India in 1498, had brought back to the King porcelains from Calcutta.
Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca in 1511, and the first naos (ships) departed from that peninsula to China.
In 1517 the Portuguese king Manuel I appointed Tomé Pires, his herbalist and author of „Suma Oriental“ (1512) as ambassador to the Chinese emperor Zhengde (1506–1521). Tomé Pires departed from Malacca, carrying with him a letter to the Chinese emperor.
As a consequence of a series of misunderstandings the embassy failed, and China prohibited to deal with the Portuguese commercially, forbidding even the entry of Portuguese subjects on its territory from 1522 to 1552.
Under such unfavorable conditions imposed by the Ming court – which from the very beginning of the dynasty followed a xenophobic policy – the Portuguese commissioned the first Chinese porcelains.
In my work I aim to present an overview of the blue and white porcelains that were sent to Lisbon during the roughly two centuries in question, that is from the first orders up to the end of emperor Kangxi's reign (1722)1. I decided to list the orders chronologically in groups of related wares and established periods.
In order to determine each of these periods, I had to take into account a series of factors:
Historic background of the Portuguese presence in Asia.
The progresses made in Jingdezhen, the town that had monopolized the production of porcelains since the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368)
The general characteristics of porcelains during each Chinese emperor's reign.
The characteristics of the individual pieces exported to Portugal.
The first period covers the years between the first orders at the beginning of the 16th century up to 1522, the year the Portuguese were forbidden to trade with China.
The porcelains of this early period feature basically the emblems of the state and church only, thus clearly bearing witness to the strong centralized government of Manuel I. The only Portuguese decorations to be found are the Manueline armillary sphere and his coats-of-arms, as well as a Catholic symbol, the IHS monogram. Another motive, in my opinion of Portuguese origin, however, is found only together with the preceding ones.
These first orders have strong similarities in shape and decoration with the wares exported to the Middle East and, in the case of dishes, also to South-East Asia.
In my opinion this group of the very first orders was commissioned by Portuguese not in China itself, but probably in Malakka, the Spice Islands and other trading posts where private Chinese merchants sold the first pieces of porcelain to them and then took orders of their Portuguese customers back to Jingdezhen.
Of all objects known today, the probably first orders were a group of dishes related by similar decoration and shape, which bear the armillary sphere and the coats-of-arms of King Manuel I together with the IHS monogramm. The first types measure about 51 cm in diameter – objects 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 – the second types measure 31 cm – objects 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 .
These dishes have hitherto mostly been dated Jiajing (1522–1566). But their thick shard, milky glaze, „spiky scrolls“, grayish cobalt blue and the peonies which decorate the back of the larger pieces (and the front of the piece in the British Museum) identify them as Hongzhi (1488–1505) or Zhengde (1506–1521) porcelains, since they belong to the same series of dishes that were exported around 1500 to the Middle East and South-East Asia.
The next objects are two ewers – objects 15 and 16 – with very simplified decoration. They bear the Xuande (1426–1435) mark on the basis and the armillary sphere of Manuel I (1495–1521) on their bodies. The poor quality of these ewers have lead some experts to believe that they were made in a provincial oven in Fujian.
Zhengde period porcelain is known for not being of best quality. Furthermore, during this time China started to export large quantities of porcelain.
The following pieces – objects 17 and 18 – are an ewer and a bottle. The ewer bears the armillary sphere of Manuel I on both sides and the Zhengde mark on its base. The piece has been executed in two parts, carefully decorated in bright cobalt, and the shard is white. These characterists lead one to believe it could be a Jiajing ware. The bottle was found on the Molucca Islands, also called Spice Islands, part of today's Indonesia. It bears no reign mark, has a bulbous mouth and was decorated on the neck with spiralling prunus in a grayish cobalt tone, which makes it datable from late Zhengde to early or middle Jiajing.
The third object in this group of porcelaines is a jug in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York – object 19 – which has the coats-of-arms of Manuel I painted upside-down in a bright blue cobalt, bearing the Xuande mark on the basis. This piece has been dated Zhengde (1506–1521) for long, despite of John Pope's observations of its hexagonal mouth which is a sure indication of a later period. The actual dating by the Metropolitan Museum of Art is 1540–1545.
The second period covers the time when the Portuguese were officially prohibited to trade with the Chinese, from 1522 to 1557, the latter year being the date the situation was finally regularized and Macau was given to the Portuguese.
King João III (1522–1557) followed a more pragmatic policy than Manuel I, being more interested in establishing trade relations with foreign countries than conquering them.
Most of the pieces during his reign bear testimony to an active illegal trade.
During this period, which corresponds to the reign of emperor Jiajing in China, there is a general improvement in the potting and decoration of the ordered wares. This period is also characterized by the appearance of inscriptions on porcelains, which render them more individual.
Around the middle of the 16th century at least two forms were introduced by the Portuguese: a bowl with small handles, copied from a porridger, of which only two pieces are extant. For this reason these two bowls should be considered as individual cases. The second form was a deep dish with flat rim, which was widely produced in Jingdezhen and is present in various collections.
Decoration basically stays Chinese with the exception of the various coats-of-arms and, in one of the bowls with small handles, a scene with Europeans on horse back.
During this period there are still great similiarities between exported wares to the Middle East and Portugal.
I first analyze three ewers displaying the IHS monogram with a latin cross over the „H“ –objects 20, 21 and 22 – which relates them to the Jesuits. The quality of these wares and their decoration are characteristic of the Jiajing (1522–1566) period.
Next are five bowls with the inscriptions „AVE MARIA GRACIA PLENA“ – objects 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27. The first two have straight rims and bear the armillary sphere and coats-of-arms of Manuel I upside-down on the outer walls. In the centre appears a taoist religious figure. The third and fourth have flared rims, buddhist lions playing with a brocade ball in the centre, and also bear the „IHS“ monogram on the outside walls, which here appears with a cross over the „H“, relating them to the Jesuits. The fifth bowl also has a flared rim and has been carefully decorated with a frieze of lotus panels and peonies' scrolls.
The five „Ave Maria Gracia Plena“ bowls have been dated 1540–1550 due to strong similarities of bowls 25 and 26 with one in the Topkapi Saray Museum of Istanbul, which has an inscription and date „EM TEMPO DE PEDRO DE FARIA 1541“ object 28.
Two more bowls in a form derived most probably from a pewter bowl – objects 29 and 30 – bear the same inscription. One of them shows on it's outside wall children at play, a characteristic motif of the Jiajing period, and the coats-of-arms of the Abreu family in the center. The other shows Europeans on horse back in the centre as well as a figure meditating, also evoking the emperor's religion .
The so-called „Jorge Álvarez bottles“ represent an important historic testimony of the first encounters between two civilizations. Capitão Jorge Álvarez was a friend of Francisco Xavier, who died in Álvarez' tent, during his attempt to christianize China. The bottles were ordered in the year of his death 1522. There are six extant bottles around the world, four of which are shown as objects 31, 32, 33 and 34, all bearing the inscriptions and date „ISTO MANDOU FAZER JORGE ALVAREZ 1522 REYNA“. Two of them bear a good wishes mark. On their neck they feature the jewel-and-bead motive, and on the body either the buddhist motive of lions playing with brocade balls and the sea and nature elements like ducks, fishes, sea-stars, water plants and flowers respectively. The motives are presented in registers. The construction of their neck is similar to the bottles found on the naos „San Diego“ and „Nossa Senhora dos Mártires“, shipwrecked in 1600 and 1606 respectively.
The third period covers the time from the establishment of the Portuguese in Macau in 1557 and the normalization of the commercial relations with China, up to 1610, when the Portuguese start loosing control of the sea-routes to the Dutch.
During this third period orders were made in greater scale than before, often in different shapes and, thanks to a well organized trade network, were distributed to distant parts of the globe.
This period includes the Portuguese orders in Kraak style.
The forms of the ordered wares remain mostly Chinese. Nevertheless some non–Chinese shapes have been introduced, again from utensils taken on ships, as is the case of the „carracas“ style bottle.
Concerning decoration, apart from coats-of-arms, it remains mostly Chinese.
The two ewers with the coats-of-arms attributed to the Peixoto family – objects 35 and 36 – bear the Jiajing marks. It has a bulbous mouth with a decoration mostly seen on wares for the local Chinese market. It has been dated to the second half of the Jiajing reign.
On the Matias de Albuquerque dish – object 37 – there was no space left for further decoration than the coats-of-arms. It bears the „fu“ (fortune) mark on the back. Fragments of a similar dish have been found in Ormuz. It has been dated 1575–1600, as Albuquerque served as Vice-King of India from 1591 to 1597.
Next is a group of jars with the coats-of-arms of the Augustinians – objects 38, 39, 40, 41 and 42 – with either a round or hexagonal mouth, made in two known sizes. The Augustinians settle in Macau 1589. Their decoration combines naturalistic flowers, plants and animals with Christian motives, divided into panels, a common feature during the Wanli period (1573–1619). Related to them are three dishes of two different sizes – objects 43, 44 and 45 – decorated with lions, butterflies, peaches and peonies. The latter and larger dish has a white hare on the rim. The hare appears frequently from the early 16th to the early 17th century. All pieces have been dated 1590.
The square bottles decorated with the coats-of-arms of the Vilas Boas or Vaz families – objects 46, 47, 48, 49 and 50 – were apparently produced in two different sizes and their prototype was most probably a European glass bottle, the kind which served for transport of alcoholic beverages on ships. Some authors believe the model was copied from a sake bottle. Their decoration combines naturalistic motives characteristic of the Wanli period (1573–1619) with patterns inspired by textile motives, which also make their debut during his reign. The bottles are dated 1590–1610.
From the few known Kraak wares with coats-of-arms, some were commissioned by the Portuguese.
Dom João de Almeida, or possibly the Mello or Palla families, ordered the three dishes and one kendi – objects 56, 57, 58 and 59. They have been dated between 1575 and 1605 after historical records displaying the decoration of their panels. The well-drawn beaded pendants on the kendi points to an early type.
The next two pieces, a dish and a bowl – objects 60 and 61 – with the inscription „SAPIENTI NIHIL NOVUM“ are believed to be a Portuguese order because the dish was part of the porcelain ceiling at the Santos Palace in Lisbon. The motive of the seven-headed Hydra reminds of scenes depicted on the Angers tapisserie dated end of the 14th century and the fact that a similar bowl appears on a still-life Dutch painting of W. C. Heda dated 1638, makes it possible that they were commissioned by the Dutch. The dish has been dated 1575–1605 and the bowl 1600–1620.
The dish with the coats-of-arms of the Galego family – object 62 – has Wanli -style flower decoration on the panels distributed in a manner typical for the period between 1575 and 1615, but combined on four divided areas with different diaper patterns, which points to a later period. It could, therefore, be dated between 1595–1635.
The fourth period starts around 1610 and covers the years up to 1657, when Jingdezhen ceases to export to Europe.
During this period the Portuguese start losing control of the maritime trade to the Dutch.
The Ming dynasty approaches its end and the potters of Jingdezhen have to look for new customers.
The Portuguese seem to profit from this situation mostly during the early Transitional period, that is, from 1620 up to around 1633, when the quality of the exported porcelain did not yet attain the level of perfection seen when Jingdezhen was reorganized under private hands. During this time trade was monopolized by the Dutch.
During this fourth period more sophisticated forms than in the previous periods were introduced by the Portuguese,
In the domain of decoration, foreign patterns – though not Portuguese – were added to the Chinese repertoire: one of them shows similarities with the Medici porcelains and Italian majolicas decorations, which were inspired by Turkish Iznik wares. Other are stylised flowers, also known as „European flowers“, which include the tulip.
Tulips appear in two groups of wares described as follows: the bottles of Philip II and the square bottles related to the Dominicans. Both groups have not yet been described as Portuguese orders, since they could also have been commissioned by the Spaniards or Dutch.
The three following jars – objects 51, 52 and 53 – probably made for the Portuguese Jesuits, may have been copied after metal prototypes. Their decoration combines Wanlityle flowers with Christian motives. The glaze has fritted away along the edges. Applied angel faces of clay convey a sculptural tone to this group, a characteristic which is also found in the next two ewers. They are dated 1610–1630.
The twin ewers of unusual shape – objects 54 – 55 – could have been inspired by a Portuguese faience prototype. Their handle is in the form of a rudimentary prominent figure, which reminds one of the common contemporary ivory figures of crucified Christ made in Goa. The source of inspiration for the rosettes is unknown. They belong to the same period as that of the preceding jars.
The inclusion of molded parts in the decoration of the five last described pieces announces the predilection for highly modelled and decorative pieces ordered by the Portuguese during the Qing Dynasty.
It is not yet clear who ordered the flasks with the coats-of-arms of Felipe II, King of Spain (1556–1598) and King of Portugal (1580–1598) – objects 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73 and 74 – and when. Their forms derive from a European pilgrims' flask. There is a consensus among authors, however, that the coats-of-arms were copied from a coin. There are three types of flasks, all with the same shape, but different decoration. The first type has motives typical of the Wanli (1573–1619) period: naturalistic flowers, insects and rocks drawn on the opposite side of the coats-of-arms. The second group has a landscape painting composed by diagonal rocky cliffs, with strong tonal contrasts and much space left in between, with a scholar and his attendant in a narrative style which is characteristic of the Transitional period. The third flask has sketchily drawn flowers joined by leafy scrolls, with short secondary and tertiary scrolls branching off the main stem, on both sides, without coats-of-arms. All the pieces show signs of a chipping glaze. All together these features are typical of the Tianqi (1621–1627) and early Chongzhen (1628–1644) periods, also known as early Transitional period.
The next pieces are the square bottles with a complexe Christian iconography – objects 75, 76, 77 and 78 – whose commissioners could have been the Dominicans, as a dog with a lit torch in his mouth, symbol of Saint Dominic, is depicted in the lower left on two of its sides. These pieces, which were most probably produced after a European prototype, have their decoration framed by stylised flowers and tulips on the neck, motives widely used during the Transitional Period. Some scholars believe they could have been commissioned by the Dutch. The bottles have been dated between 1620–1644.
The following jars bear the heraldic insignia of the Jesuits – objects 79 and 80 – drawn in cartouches on the main register, over a flower pattern that reminds of the flower arabesques found on Medici porcelains and Italian majolica. On the upper register, smaller cartouches containing a hare were painted with a background of patterns with svastikas and diapers. They are dated between 1620 and 1644.
The two pots – objects 81 and 82 – are of identical shape but different size and bear no other decoration than the coats-of-arms of the Pinto, Pereira, Guedes and Pimentel families. The form, most probably derived from a Portuguese faience prototype, shows traces of the potter's wheel. It has been dated Chongzhen (1628–1644).
The fifth period covers the time from when Jingdezhen was reorganized under Zang Yingxuan 1683 up to the end of the Kangxi period, 1722. During this period, the friendly trade policies of the Manchus and the gold discovered in Brazil (1699 first shipping) boosted the Portuguese orders of porcelain, both royal, clerical or private. The Kangxi reign porcelain was prolific in quantity and quality. This is a time of transition to purely European looking export porcelain – Meissen produced porcelain from 1711 onwards and thus became an important competitor with Jingdezhen. I have chosen only two groups of porcelains, which I believe represent the main trends of the 18th century:
The first group comprises identical plates ordered by the Pinto family – objects 83, 84, 85, 86, 87 and 88. They feature foliated rims and conserve Chinese forms and decorations and are dated between 1690 and 1700.
The decoration of the second group is a pattern of flowers, fruits and leaves that only appear on these blue and white wares commissioned by various families from Portugal and its colony Brazil during the period of 1690 to 1720 – objects 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 and 95. Pieces with this decoration include a variety of different shapes such as dishes, a kraak style plate, vases, and a wash basin made after a Portuguese metal prototypes. The plant depicted in this groups, shown both as buds as well as blooming flowers, and exclusive to these orders of Portugal, could not be identified by botanic specialists. Buds, flowers and leaves do not seem to correspond to one single species.
These two groups therefore differ both in form and decoration, the first being almost exclusively Chinese, the latter Portuguese.
Keywords (eng)
blue-and-whiteblau-whiteporcelainChinaPortugalJingdezhenGuanyaoMinyaoWanliHongzhiZhengdeJiajingLongqingKraakTianqiChongzhenShunzhiKangxiMingQingAsia2008
Keywords (deu)
Blauweißblau-weißPorzellanChinaPortugalJingdezhenGuanyaoMinyaoWanliHongzhiZhengdeJiajingLongqingKraakTianqiChongzhenShunzhiKangxiMingQingAsien
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